Glossary
Cannabinoids
Cannabinoids are compounds found in the cannabis plant. The best-known cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (Delta9-THC or Delta8-THC), the main psychoactive compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol (CBD) is another main component of the plant. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from cannabis.
Medicinal uses include treating nausea due to chemotherapy, spasticity, and possibly neuropathic pain. Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation, and feeling "high".
THC
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive compound in cannabis and one of at least 113 total cannabinoids identified in the plant. Although the chemical formula for THC (C21H30O2) describes several isomers, the term THC usually refers to the delta-9 THC isomer with the chemical name ( -) -trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol.
Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), better known as THC, is the main component of the marijuana plant that causes psychoactive effects. THC was first discovered and isolated in Israel in 1964 by Bulgarian-born chemist Raphael Mechoulam. It has been found that when smoked, tetrahydrocannabinol is absorbed into the bloodstream and travels to the brain, where it attaches to the naturally occurring endocannabinoid receptors in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia. These are the parts of the brain responsible for thinking, memory, pleasure, coordination, and movement.
THC, along with its double bond isomers and their stereoisomers, is one of only three cannabinoids listed in the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It was listed on Schedule I in 1971 but was reclassified to Schedule II in 1991 on WHO recommendation. Based on later studies, the WHO has recommended reclassification to the less stringent Appendix III. Cannabis as a plant is listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV).
Source: Wikipedia
In Germany, THC falls under the Narcotics Act and is illegal. The exception is for medical purposes under strict conditions.
The active ingredient is being actively studied by research and used to treat certain symptoms in patients. The research field is constantly developing and new areas of application are being explored.
CBD
The abbreviation CBD stands for cannabidiol, one of more than 120 known cannabinoids in the hemp plant. Along with THC, it is the cannabioid that is most commonly found in hemp plants. The CBD content depends on the original genetics, the plant part , or the further processing of the plant material. The seeds approved in the European Union are in the EU catalog of varieties and are of the Cannabis Sativa L type.
Cannabidiol (CBD) is not psychotropic. It has been proven that the substance counteracts cognitive impairments associated with the use of cannabis. Cannabidiol has low affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists. It was shown to be an antagonist of the putative novel cannabinoid receptor GPR55, a GPCR expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen. Cannabidiol has also been shown to be an agonist of the 5-HT1A receptor. CBD can interfere with the absorption of adenosine, which plays an important role in biochemical processes such as energy transfer. It may play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal.
CBD shares a common ancestor with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant cannabis strains. CBD has been shown to play a role in preventing short-term memory loss associated with THC.
There is early evidence that CBD has antipsychotic effects, but research in this area is limited.
Source. Wikipedia
More information on the subject and under the current state of science and CBD & law.
The Edocanabinoid System
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a biological system composed of endocannabinoids, endogenous lipid-based retrograde neurotransmitters that bind to cannabinoid receptors (CBR), and cannabinoid receptor proteins expressed throughout the vertebrate central nervous system (including the brain) and the peripheral nervous system become.
The endocannabinoid system is not fully understood, but may be involved in the regulation of physiological and cognitive processes, including fertility, pregnancy, pre- and postnatal development, various immune system activities, appetite, pain perception, mood and memory, and in mediating the pharmacological action of cannabis. The ECS plays an important role in many aspects of neuronal function, including the control of movement and motor coordination, learning and memory, emotion and motivation, addictive behavior, and pain modulation.
Two primary cannabinoid receptors have been identified: CB1, which was first cloned in 1990, and CB2, which was cloned in 1993.
CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain and nervous system, as well as peripheral organs and tissues, and are the primary molecular target of the endogenous partial agonist anandamide (AEA) and exogenous THC, the most well-known active component of cannabis. The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which is two to three orders of magnitude more abundant than AEA in the mammalian brain, acts as a full agonist at both CB receptors. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a phytocannabinoid that acts as a rather weak antagonist at both CBRs and as a more potent agonist at TRPV1 and antagonist at TRPM8. It is also known as a negative allosteric modulator at CB1. CBD has been shown to counteract some of the negative side effects of THC.
Source: Wikipedia
Cannabinoid binding sites are found throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. The two most important receptors for cannabinoids are the CB1 and CB2 receptors, which are primarily expressed in the brain and immune system, respectively. The density of expression varies by animal species and correlates to the potency that cannabinoids will have in modulating specific aspects of behavior related to the site of expression. In rodents, for example, the highest concentration of cannabinoid-binding sites is in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, regions of the brain involved in initiating and coordinating movement. In humans, cannabinoid receptors are present in much lower concentrations in these regions, which explains why cannabinoids have greater potency in altering motor movements in rodents than in humans.
A recent analysis of cannabinoid binding in mice in which the CB1 and CB2 receptors have been knocked out found that cannabinoids respond even when these receptors are not expressed, suggesting that an additional binding receptor is present in the brain could be. Binding of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) to the TRPV1 receptor was detected, suggesting that this receptor may be a candidate for the observed response.
Source: Wikipedia
Possible functions
Memory
Mice treated with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) show suppression of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, a process essential for long-term memory formation and storage. These results may be consistent with anecdotal evidence suggesting that smoking cannabis impairs short-term memory. Consistent with this finding, mice lacking the CB1 receptor show improved memory and long-term potentiation, suggesting that the endocannabinoid system may play a central role in erasing old memories. In one study, it was found that treating rats in high doses for several weeks with the synthetic cannabinoid HU-210 stimulated neuronal growth in the rat's hippocampal region, a part of the limbic system involved in the formation of declarative and spatial memories plays a role; however, effects on short-term or long-term memory have not been studied.[53] Taken together, these results suggest that the effects of endocannabinoids on the different brain networks involved in learning and memory may differ.
Role in neurogenesis in the hippocampus
In the adult brain, the endocannabinoid system promotes neurogenesis of granule cells in the hippocampus. In the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, multipotent neural progenitor (NP) cells give rise to daughter cells that mature over several weeks into granule cells whose axons project to and synapse with the dendrites of the CA3 region. Hippocampal NPs have been shown to possess fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), express CB1, and utilize 2-AG. Interestingly, CB1 activation by endogenous or exogenous cannabinoids promotes NP proliferation and differentiation; this activation is absent in CB1 knockouts and is abolished in the presence of an antagonist.
Induction of synaptic depression
Endocannabinoids are known to affect synaptic plasticity and are thought to mediate long-term depression (LTD, which relates to neuron firing, not psychological depression) in particular. Short-term depression (STD) has also been described (see next paragraph). This system was first described in the striatum,[56] but is also known in other brain structures such as the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, ventral tegmental area (VTA), brainstem, and superior colliculus. Typically, these retrograde transmitters are released from the postsynaptic neuron and trigger synaptic depression by activating presynaptic CB1 receptors.
It has further been suggested that different endocannabinoids, i.e. 2-AG and anandamide, might mediate different forms of synaptic depression via different mechanisms. The study conducted with the nucleus bed of the stria terminalis revealed that the persistence of depressive effects is mediated by two distinct signaling pathways based on the type of receptor activated. It was found that 2-AG acts on presynaptic CB1 receptors to mediate retrograde STD after activation of L-type calcium channels, while anandamide is synthesized after mGluR5 activation and triggers autocrine signaling on postsynaptic TRPV1 receptors, which induce a LTD. These findings provide the brain with a direct mechanism to selectively inhibit neuronal excitability over variable time periods. By selectively internalizing different receptors, the brain can limit the production of specific endocannabinoids to favor a timescale that suits its needs.
Appetite
Evidence for the role of the endocannabinoid system in foraging comes from a number of cannabinoid studies. New data suggests that THC acts through CB1 receptors in the hypothalamic nuclei and directly increases appetite. Hypothalamic neurons are thought to tonically produce endocannabinoids that tightly regulate hunger. The amount of endocannabinoids produced is inversely related to the amount of leptin in the blood. Leptin-deficient mice, for example, not only become massively obese, but have abnormally high levels of endocannabinoids in the hypothalamus as a compensatory mechanism. [ When these mice were treated with an endocannabinoid inverse agonist such as rimonabant, food intake decreased, and when the CB1 receptor is turned off in mice, these animals tend to be leaner and less hungry than wild-type mice. A related study examined the effect of THC on the hedonic (pleasure) value of foods and found enhanced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and increased pleasure-related behavior after administration of a sucrose solution. A related study found that endocannabinoids affect taste perception in the taste cells. In taste cells, endocannabinoids were shown to selectively increase the strength of neuronal signaling for sweet tastes, while leptin decreased the strength of the same response. Although more research is needed, these results suggest that cannabinoid activity in the hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens is related to appetizing, food-seeking behavior.
Energy balance and metabolism
The endocannabinoid system has been shown to play a homeostatic role by controlling various metabolic functions such as energy storage and nutrient transport. It acts on peripheral tissues such as adipocytes, hepatocytes, the gastrointestinal tract, skeletal muscle and the endocrine pancreas. It has also been linked to the modulation of insulin sensitivity. Through all of this, the endocannabinoid system may play a role in clinical conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis, which means it could also play a cardiovascular role.
Stress response
While the release of glucocorticoids in response to stressful stimuli is an adaptive response that an organism needs to respond appropriately to a stressor, sustained release can be detrimental. The endocannabinoid system has been implicated in accustoming the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to repeated stress through restraint. Studies have shown differential synthesis of anandamide and 2-AG during tonic stress. A decrease in anandamide was noted along the axis contributing to basal hypersecretion of corticosterone; in contrast, an increase in 2-AG was found in the amygdala after repeated stress, which was negatively correlated with the magnitude of the corticosterone response. All effects were reversed by the CB1 antagonist AM251, supporting the conclusion that these effects are cannabinoid receptor dependent. These results demonstrate that anandamide and 2-AG differentially regulate the HPA axis response to stress: while 2-AG's stress-induced HPA axis habituation prevents excessive glucocorticoid secretion to non-threatening stimuli, the increase in basal corticosterone allows -Secretion resulting from the decreased anandamide, a facilitated response of the HPA axis to new stimuli.
Exploration, social behavior and fear
These contrasting effects demonstrate the importance of the endocannabinoid system in regulating anxiety-related behavior. The results suggest that glutamatergic cannabinoid receptors are not only responsible for mediating aggression, but also exert an anxiolytic function by inhibiting excessive arousal: excessive arousal produces anxiety that prevented the mice from approaching both animate and inanimate objects explore. In contrast, GABAergic neurons appear to control anxiogenic function by limiting the release of inhibitory transmitters. Taken together, these two sets of neurons appear to help regulate the organism's overall arousal response to new situations[64].
immune system
In laboratory experiments, activation of cannabinoid receptors had an effect on activation of GTPases in macrophages, neutrophils and bone marrow cells. These receptors have also been implicated in the migration of B cells to the marginal zone and the regulation of IgM levels.
female reproduction
Early in development, the developing embryo expresses cannabinoid receptors that respond to anandamide secreted in the uterus. This signaling is important in regulating the timing of embryo implantation and the receptivity of the uterus. In mice, anandamide has been shown to affect the likelihood of implantation in the uterine wall. For example, in humans, the likelihood of miscarriage increases when anandamide levels in the uterus are too high or too low. These results suggest that ingestion of exogenous cannabinoids (e.g., cannabis) may decrease the likelihood of pregnancy in women with high levels of anandamide and increase the likelihood of pregnancy in women with low anandamide levels.
autonomic nervous system
The peripheral expression of cannabinoid receptors prompted researchers to investigate the role of cannabinoids in the autonomic nervous system. The research found that the CB1 receptor is expressed presynaptically by motor neurons that innervate the visceral organs. Cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of electrical potentials results in a reduction in norepinephrine release from nerves in the sympathetic nervous system. Other studies have found similar effects in endocannabinoid regulation of gut motility, including smooth muscle innervation associated with the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
analgesia
In the spinal cord, cannabinoids suppress noxious stimulus-elicited responses of neurons in the dorsal horn, possibly by modulating the descending brainstem norepinephrine input. Because many of these fibers are primarily GABAergic, cannabinoid stimulation in the spine results in disinhibition, which should increase norepinephrine release and suppress noxious stimulus processing in the periphery and dorsal root ganglion.
The most studied endocannabinoid for pain is palmitoylethanolamide. Palmitoylethanolamide is a fatty amine related to anandamide but saturated. Originally thought that palmitoylethanolamide binds to the CB1 and CB2 receptors, later it was found that the most important receptors are the PPAR-alpha receptor, the TRPV receptor and the GPR55 receptor. Palmitoylethanolamide has been studied for its analgesic effects on a variety of pain indications and found to be safe and effective.
Modulation of the endocannabinoid system through metabolism to N-arachidinoyl phenolamine (AM404), an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter, has been identified as a mechanism for analgesia by acetaminophen.
Endocannabinoids are implicated in placebo-induced analgesic responses.
thermoregulation
Anandamide and N-arachidonoyl-dopamine (NADA) have been shown to act on the temperature-sensitive TRPV1 channels involved in thermoregulation.TRPV1 is activated by the exogenous ligand capsaicin, the active ingredient in chili peppers, which is structurally similar to endocannabinoids. NADA activates the TRPV1 channel with an EC50 value of approximately 50 nM. The high potency makes it a putative endogenous TRPV1 agonist. Anandamide was also found to activate TRPV1 at the terminals of sensory neurons and subsequently induce vasodilation. TRPV1 can also be activated by methanandamide and arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA).
Sleep
Increased endocannabinoid signaling in the central nervous system promotes sleep-inducing effects. Intercerebroventricular administration of anandamide to rats has been shown to decrease wakefulness and increase slow-motion and REM sleep. Administration of anandamide to the basal forebrain of rats has also been shown to increase levels of adenosine, which play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal. REM sleep deprivation in rats has been shown to increase expression of CB1 receptors in the central nervous system. Additionally, anandamide levels in rats follow a circadian rhythm, with levels being higher during the light phase of the day when rats are normally asleep or less active as they are nocturnal.
Physical activity
Anandamide is an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter that binds to cannabinoid receptors. The ECS is also involved in mediating some physiological and cognitive effects of voluntary physical activity in humans and other animals, such as: B. the euphoria triggered by the activity as well as the modulation of the movement activity and the motivating importance of rewards. In humans, it has been found that plasma concentrations of certain endocannabinoids (i.e., "Since endocannabinoids can efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier, it has been suggested that anandamide, along with other euphoric neurochemicals, contributes to the development of exercise-induced euphoria in humans, a condition colloquially referred to as "runner's high."
Source: Wikipedia
USB standard
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that provides specifications for cables, connectors, and protocols for connecting, communicating, and powering (interfacing) between computers, peripherals, and other computers. There is a wide variety of USB hardware, including 14 different connector types, the newest of which is USB-C.
The USB standards were first published in 1996 and are maintained by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF). The four generations of USB are: USB 1.x, USB 2.0, USB 3.x and USB4.
Goal
The Universal Serial Bus was designed to simplify and improve the interface between personal computers and peripheral devices such as cellular phones, computer accessories, and monitors, compared to previously existing standard or proprietary ad hoc interfaces.
Story
A group of seven companies began developing USB in 1995: Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Nortel. The aim was to fundamentally simplify the connection of external devices to PCs, replacing the numerous connectors on the back of PCs, solving the usability problems of existing interfaces and simplifying the software configuration of all devices connected to USB. Ajay Bhatt and his team worked on the standard at Intel; the first integrated circuits to support USB were manufactured by Intel in 1995.
Joseph C. Decuir, an American Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and one of the developers of the early Atari 8-bit gaming and computer systems (Atari VCS, Atari 400/800) and the Commodore Amiga, leads his work to Atari SIO, the communication implementation of the Atari 8-bit computer, as the basis for the USB standard [citation needed] which he also helped develop and for which he holds patents.
In 2008, there were approximately 6 billion USB connectors and interfaces on the market worldwide, and approximately 2 billion were sold each year.
Source: Wikipedia
USB-C:
Formally known as USB Type-C, it is a 24-pin USB connector system with a rotationally symmetrical connector.
USB Type-C Specification 1.0 was published by USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) and finalized in August 2014. It was developed around the same time as the USB 3.1 specification. In July 2016, it was adopted by the IEC as "IEC 62680-1-3".
A device with a Type-C connector does not necessarily implement USB, USB Power Delivery, or an Alternate Mode: the Type-C connector is common to several technologies while only prescribing some of them.
USB 3.2, released in September 2017, replaces the USB 3.1 standard. It retains the existing USB 3.1 SuperSpeed and SuperSpeed+ data modes and introduces two new SuperSpeed+ transfer modes over the USB-C connector in two-lane operation, with data rates of 10 and 20 Gbps (1 and ~2, 4GB/s).
USB4, to be released in 2019, is the first USB transfer protocol standard only available over USB-C.
It is the latest standard that is also promoted by the EU or is required as a standard. It is found in most newer devices. The Type-C supports the 2.0 (revised version), 3.0, 3.1, 3.2 and USB4 standards
The 24-pin double-ended connector is slightly larger than the micro-B connector. A USB-C port is 8.4 millimeters wide, 2.6 millimeters high and 6.65 millimeters deep. There are two types of connectors: male and female.
Plugs can be found on cables and adapters. Sockets can be found on devices and adapters.
All USB-C cables must be able to carry at least 3A of power (at 20V, 60W), but can also carry high-power 5A of power (at 20V, 100W). USB-C to USB-C cables that support 5A current must contain E-Marker chips (also marketed as E-Mark chips) that are programmed to identify the cable and its current capabilities. USB charging ports should also be clearly labeled with the capable wattage.
Full-fledged USB-C cables that implement USB 3.1 Gen 2 can handle a data rate of up to 10 Gbps at full duplex. They are marked with a SuperSpeed+ (SuperSpeed 10 Gbit/s) logo.
There are also cables that can only transfer USB 2.0 with a data rate of up to 480 Mbit/s.
Source: Wikipedia
USB-A : Is an older type and can still be found in most devices, or in charging sockets in cars, hotels or airplanes. Type USB 2 supports standards 1.0, 1.1, 2.0 and the revised version 2.0. The data transfer is based on the USB 2.0 standard with a data rate of up to 480 Mbit/s.
USB Micro B : Can also be found in many devices such as boom boxes or other devices. Type Micro B supports revised version 2.0.
There are other types in addition to those listed, but the trend is clearly towards USB-C, which is therefore the most promising.
USB connectors :
The three sizes of USB plugs are the standard format intended for desktop or portable devices, the mini format intended for mobile devices, which is now obsolete and has been replaced by the thinner micro format, which in turn comes with the introduction of Type-C are obsolete.
There are five speeds for USB data transfer: Low Speed, Full Speed, High Speed (from version 2.0 of the specification), SuperSpeed (from version 3.0) and SuperSpeed+ (from version 3.1). The modes have different hardware and cabling requirements. USB devices have a certain range of implemented modes, and the USB version is not a reliable indicator of the implemented modes.
The modes are identified by their names and icons, and the spec suggests that plugs and sockets be color-coded (SuperSpeed is denoted by blue).
longevity
The standard connectors have been designed to be more robust than many previous connectors. The reason for this is that USB can be hot-swapped and the plugs are used more often and perhaps with less care than previous plugs.
The standard USB connector has a minimum lifespan of 1,500 insertion and removal cycles, the mini USB connector increases this to 5,000 cycles, and the newer micro USB and USB-C connectors are both rated for a minimum lifespan of 10,000 insertions and removals. and removal cycles designed. To achieve this a latch has been added and the leaf spring has been relocated from the socket to the plug so that the most stressed part is on the cable side of the connection. This change was made so that the cheaper cable's connector gets the most stress.
With standard USB, the electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by an adjacent plastic tab, and the entire connector assembly is typically protected by an enclosing metal shell.
The body of the plug makes contact with the socket before the internal pins make contact. The shell is usually grounded to dissipate static electricity and to shield the wires inside the plug.
Source: Wikipedia
In practice, however, these values deviate significantly from the ideal situation and connectors and cables wear out much faster. Similarly, the ports on the devices. By introducing magnetic connectors, the service life of the connectors, cables and devices and thus the consumption of resources can be significantly reduced. See also the Datagnan concept .